Generate some very basic example data in 1D.
Gaussian: $p(x)=\frac{1}{\sqrt(2\pi\sigma^2)}\exp\left(-\frac{(x-\mu)^2}{\sigma^2}\right)$ with mean $\mu$ and variance $\sigma^2$
Laplace: $p(x)=\frac{1}{2b}\exp\left(-\frac{|x-\mu|}{b}\right)$ with mean $\mu$ and variance $2b^2$
Means and variances are set to be equal
from scipy.stats import norm, laplace
sigma2=1
mu=0
b=sqrt(0.5)
Xs=linspace(-2, 2, 500)
plot(Xs, norm.pdf(Xs, loc=mu, scale=sigma2))
plot(Xs, laplace.pdf(Xs, loc=mu, scale=b))
_=legend([ 'Gaussian','Laplace'])
Sample from these distributions and plot histogram, and compute first two moments
n=220
X=norm.rvs(size=n, loc=mu, scale=sigma2)
Y=laplace.rvs(size=n, loc=mu, scale=b)
subplot(1,2,1)
hist(X)
xlim([-5,5])
ylim([0,100])
title('Gaussian')
subplot(1,2,2)
title('Laplace')
hist(Y)
xlim([-5,5])
_=ylim([0,100])
print "Gaussian sample mean", mean(X)
print "Laplacian sample mean", mean(Y)
print "Gaussian sample variance", var(X)
print "Laplacian sample variance", var(Y)
Gaussian sample mean -0.0574626457444 Laplacian sample mean 0.0348045465941 Gaussian sample variance 1.16888710379 Laplacian sample variance 0.86255333807
Bring into Shogun representation and create quadratic time MMD instance
from shogun.Features import RealFeatures
from shogun.Kernel import GaussianKernel, CustomKernel
from shogun.Statistics import QuadraticTimeMMD
from shogun.Statistics import BOOTSTRAP, UNBIASED
feat_p=RealFeatures(reshape(X, (1,len(X))))
feat_q=RealFeatures(reshape(Y, (1,len(Y))))
kernel_width=1
kernel=GaussianKernel(10, kernel_width)
mmd=QuadraticTimeMMD(kernel, feat_p, feat_q)
Compute two-sample test using permutation/bootstrapping, precompute kernel matrix for that
# precompute kernel to be faster for null sampling
p_and_q=mmd.get_p_and_q()
kernel.init(p_and_q, p_and_q);
precomputed_kernel=CustomKernel(kernel);
mmd.set_kernel(precomputed_kernel);
alpha=0.05
mmd.set_null_approximation_method(BOOTSTRAP);
mmd.set_bootstrap_iterations(250);
p_value_boot=mmd.perform_test();
print p_value_boot, alpha
0.008 0.05
Visualise distribution of MMD statistic under $H_0:p=q$ and $H_A:p\neq q$. Sample both null and alternative distribution for that.
num_samples=250
# sample null distribution
null_samples=mmd.bootstrap_null(num_samples)
# sample alternative distribution, generate new data for that
alt_samples=zeros(num_samples)
for i in range(num_samples):
X=norm.rvs(size=n, loc=mu, scale=sigma2)
Y=laplace.rvs(size=n, loc=mu, scale=b)
feat_p=RealFeatures(reshape(X, (1,len(X))))
feat_q=RealFeatures(reshape(Y, (1,len(Y))))
mmd=QuadraticTimeMMD(kernel, feat_p, feat_q)
alt_samples[i]=mmd.compute_statistic()
Visualise both distributions, $H_0:p=q$ is rejected if a sample MMD is larger than a the $(1-\alpha)$-quantil of the null distribution. The null distribution has a very complicated form and is hard to analyse. However, there exist some more sohpisticated methods (faster than bootstrapping/permutation) that are implemented in Shogun.
subplot(1,2,1)
hist(null_samples, color='blue')
title('Null distribution')
subplot(1,2,2)
title('Alternative distribution')
hist(alt_samples, color='green')
figure()
hist(null_samples, color='blue')
hist(alt_samples, color='green', alpha=0.5)
title('Null and alternative distriution')
# find (1-alpha) element of null distribution
null_samples=sort(null_samples)
quantile=null_samples[round(num_samples*(1-alpha))]
axvline(x=quantile, ymin=0, ymax=100, color='red', label=str(int(round((1-alpha)*100))) + '% quantile')
_=legend()
So far, we basically had to precompute the kernel matrix for reasonable runtimes. This is not possible for more than a few thousand points. The linear time MMD statistic can help here. And it can do more cool things, for example choose the best single (or combined) kernel for you. But we need a more fancy dataset for that to show its power. We will use one of Shogun's streaming based data generators for that, the mmd class asks for examples one by one.
from shogun.Kernel import CombinedKernel
from shogun.Features import GaussianBlobsDataGenerator
from shogun.Statistics import LinearTimeMMD
from shogun.Statistics import MMDKernelSelectionOpt
from shogun.Statistics import MMD1_GAUSSIAN
m=20000
distance=10
stretch=5
num_blobs=3
angle=pi/4
# these are streaming features
gen_p=GaussianBlobsDataGenerator(num_blobs, distance, 1, 0)
gen_q=GaussianBlobsDataGenerator(num_blobs, distance, stretch, angle)
# stream some data and plot
num_plot=1000
features=gen_p.get_streamed_features(num_plot)
features=features.create_merged_copy(gen_q.get_streamed_features(num_plot))
data=features.get_feature_matrix()
figure(figsize=(8,5))
subplot(2,2,1)
grid(True)
plot(data[0][0:num_plot], data[1][0:num_plot], 'r.', label='$x$')
title('$X\sim p$')
subplot(2,2,2)
grid(True)
plot(data[0][num_plot+1:2*num_plot], data[1][num_plot+1:2*num_plot], 'b.', label='$x$', alpha=0.5)
_=title('$Y\sim q$')
What is the best kernel to use here? This is tricky since the distinguishing characteristics are hidden at a small length-scale. Create some kernels to select the best from
sigmas=[2**x for x in linspace(-5,5, 10)]
print "choosing kernel width from", ["{0:.2f}".format(sigma) for sigma in sigmas]
combined=CombinedKernel()
for i in range(len(sigmas)):
combined.append_kernel(GaussianKernel(10, sigmas[i]))
# mmd instance using streaming features, blocksize of 10000
block_size=1000
mmd=LinearTimeMMD(combined, gen_p, gen_q, m, block_size)
# optmal kernel choice is possible for linear time MMD
selection=MMDKernelSelectionOpt(mmd)
# select best kernel
kernel=selection.select_kernel()
kernel=GaussianKernel.obtain_from_generic(kernel)
print "best single kernel", kernel.get_width()
choosing kernel width from ['0.03', '0.07', '0.15', '0.31', '0.68', '1.47', '3.17', '6.86', '14.81', '32.00'] best single kernel 3.17480210394
Now perform two-sample test with that kernel
alpha=0.05
mmd.set_null_approximation_method(MMD1_GAUSSIAN);
p_value_boot=mmd.perform_test();
print p_value_boot, alpha
0.0167300748355 0.05
For the linear time MMD, the null and alternative distributions look different. Let's sample them (takes longer, reduce number of samples a bit)
mmd=LinearTimeMMD(combined, gen_p, gen_q, 5000, block_size)
num_samples=100
# sample null and alternative distribution, implicitly generate new data for that
null_samples=zeros(num_samples)
alt_samples=zeros(num_samples)
for i in range(num_samples):
alt_samples[i]=mmd.compute_statistic()
# tell MMD to merge data internally while streaming
mmd.set_simulate_h0(True)
null_samples[i]=mmd.compute_statistic()
mmd.set_simulate_h0(False)
And visualise again. We can do kernel selection since both null and alternative distribution are Gaussian.
subplot(1,2,1)
hist(null_samples, color='blue')
title('Null distribution')
subplot(1,2,2)
title('Alternative distribution')
hist(alt_samples, color='green')
figure()
hist(null_samples, color='blue')
hist(alt_samples, color='green', alpha=0.5)
title('Null and alternative distriution')
# find (1-alpha) element of null distribution
null_samples=sort(null_samples)
quantile=null_samples[round(num_samples*(1-alpha))]
axvline(x=quantile, ymin=0, ymax=100, color='red', label=str(int(round((1-alpha)*100))) + '% quantile')
_=legend()